2799:"Rousseau divides development into five stages (a book is devoted to each). Education in the first two stages seeks to the senses: only when Émile is about 12 does the tutor begin to work to develop his mind. Later, in Book 5, Rousseau examines the education of Sophie (whom Émile is to marry). Here he sets out what he sees as the essential differences that flow from sex. 'The man should be strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive' (Everyman edn: 322). From this difference comes a contrasting education. They are not to be brought up in ignorance and kept to housework: Nature means them to think, to will, to love to cultivate their minds as well as their persons; she puts these weapons in their hands to make up for their lack of strength and to enable them to direct the strength of men. They should learn many things, but only such things as suitable' (Everyman edn.: 327)."2288:
1787:. This term is often used to talk about the epistemic aims of education, i.e. questions like whether educators should aim at transmitting justified true beliefs rather than merely true beliefs or should additionally foster other epistemic virtues like critical thinking. In a different sense, the epistemology of education concerns the issue of how we arrive at knowledge on educational matters. This is especially relevant in the field of educational research, which is an active field of investigation with many studies being published on a regular basis. It is also quite influential in regard to educational policy and practice. Epistemological questions in this field concern the objectivity of its insights.2826:
those principles are "Education is an atmosphere, a discipline, a life" and "Education is the science of relations." She believed that children were born persons and should be respected as such; they should also be taught the Way of the Will and the Way of Reason. Her motto for students was "I am, I can, I ought, I will." Charlotte Mason believed that children should be introduced to subjects through living books, not through the use of "compendiums, abstracts, or selections." She used abridged books only when the content was deemed inappropriate for children. She preferred that parents or teachers read aloud those texts (such as Plutarch and the Old Testament), making omissions only where necessary.
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choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on creating opportunities for self-direction and self-actualization. They start with the student, rather than on curriculum content.
3174:'s philosophical views were based on the tradition of classical realism, dealing with truth, goodness, and beauty. However he was also influenced by the modern philosophy existentialism and instrumentalism. In his textbook Building a Philosophy of Education he has two major ideas that are the main points to his philosophical outlook: The first is truth and the second is universal structures to be found in humanity's struggle for education and the good life. Broudy also studied issues on society's demands on school. He thought education would be a link to unify the diverse society and urged the society to put more trust and a commitment to the schools and a good education.1454:
the more they should use them when trying to assess the plausibility of claims and the reasons for and against them. In this regard, it has been argued that, especially for young children, weaker forms of indoctrination may be necessary while they still lack the intellectual capacities to evaluate the reasons for and against certain claims and thus to critically assess them. In this sense, one can distinguish unavoidable or acceptable forms of indoctrination from their avoidable or unacceptable counterparts. But this distinction is not always affirmed and some theorists contend that all forms of indoctrination are bad or unacceptable.
1662:. While some objections focus on compulsory education in general, a less radical and more common criticism concerns specific compulsory topics in the curriculum, for example, in relation to sexuality or religion. Another contemporary debate in the United States concerns the practice of standardized testing: it has been argued that this discriminates against certain racial, cultural, or religious minorities since the standardized test may implicitly assume various presuppositions not shared by these minorities. Other issues in relation to power concern the authority and responsibility teachers have towards their students.1429:. Many theorists hold that indoctrination is in important ways different from education and should be avoided in education. But others contend that indoctrination should be part of education or even that there is no difference between the two. These different positions depend a lot on how "indoctrination" is to be defined. Most definitions of indoctrination agree that its goal is to get the student to accept and embrace certain beliefs. It has this in common with most forms of education but differs from it in other ways. According to one definition, the belief acquisition in indoctrination happens without regard for the2947:
2938:(1916). Dewey wrote of the dualisms that plagued educational philosophy in the latter book: "Instead of seeing the educative process steadily and as a whole, we see conflicting terms. We get the case of the child vs. the curriculum; of the individual nature vs. social culture." Dewey found that the preoccupation with facts as knowledge in the educative process led students to memorize "ill-understood rules and principles" and while second-hand knowledge learned in mere words is a beginning in study, mere words can never replace the ability to organize knowledge into both useful and valuable experience.1418:
often based on disagreements about what it means to reason well. Some critics argue that there is no universally correct form of reasoning. According to them, education should focus more on teaching subject-specific skills and less on imparting a universal method of thinking. Other objections focus on the allegation that critical thinking is not as neutral, universal, and presuppositionless as some of its proponents claim. On this view, it involves various implicit biases, like egocentrism or distanced objectivity, and culture-specific values arising from its roots in the philosophical movement of the
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definition and adding its own selection of topics. By the end of the 18th century, in addition to the trivium and quadrivium of the Middle Ages, the definition of a classical education embraced study of literature, poetry, drama, philosophy, history, art, and languages. In the 20th and 21st centuries it is used to refer to a broad-based study of the liberal arts and sciences, as opposed to a practical or pre-professional program. Classical Education can be described as rigorous and systematic, separating children and their learning into three rigid categories, Grammar, Dialectic, and Rhetoric.
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investigating education as this process. This ambiguity is also reflected on the level of the philosophy of education, which encompasses the study of the philosophical presuppositions and issues both of education as a process and as a discipline. Many works in the philosophy of education focus explicitly or implicitly on the education happening in schools. But in its widest sense, education takes place in various other fields as well, such as at home, in libraries, in museums, or in the public media. Different types of education can be distinguished, such as formal and informal education or
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disagreements about the more specific suggestions of what education should aim for. Some attempts have been made to provide an overarching framework of these different aims. According to one approach, education should at its core help the individual lead a good life. All the different more specific goals are aims of education to the extent that they serve this ultimate purpose. On this view, it may be argued that fostering rationality and autonomy in the students are aims of education to the extent that increased rationality and autonomy will result in the student leading a better life.
2707:"If men are for a long time accustomed only to one sort or method of thoughts, their minds grow stiff in it, and do not readily turn to another. It is therefore to give them this freedom, that I think they should be made to look into all sorts of knowledge, and exercise their understandings in so wide a variety and stock of knowledge. But I do not propose it as a variety and stock of knowledge, but a variety and freedom of thinking, as an increase of the powers and activity of the mind, not as an enlargement of its possessions."2645:
disagreed with learning strictly through books. He believed it was necessary to educate children in a variety of ways. He also disagreed with the way information was being presented to students. It was being presented in a way that encouraged students to take the information that was taught to them as absolute truth. Students were denied the chance to question the information. Therefore, students could not truly learn. Montaigne believed that, to learn truly, a student had to take the information and make it their own.
2774:, though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as impractical due to the decayed state of society. Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes (though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation was curiosity. This differed from Locke's '2001:, like proponents of most educational theories, claim to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning. Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey's model of learning known as "the pattern of inquiry": 1) Become aware of the problem. 2) Define the problem. 3) Propose hypotheses to solve it. 4) Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience. 5) Test the likeliest solution.1023:, study their topics. A central task for the philosophy of education is to make explicit the various fundamental assumptions and disagreements at work in its field and to evaluate the arguments raised for and against the different positions. The issue of education has a great many manifestations in various fields. Because of this, both the breadth and the influence of the philosophy of education are significant and wide-ranging, touching many other branches of philosophy, such as12905:
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2878:. Early childhood education occurs through imitation; teachers provide practical activities and a healthy environment. Steiner believed that young children should meet only goodness. Elementary education is strongly arts-based, centered on the teacher's creative authority; the elementary school-age child should meet beauty. Secondary education seeks to develop the judgment, intellect, and practical idealism; the adolescent should meet truth.1047:
But not everyone agrees with this characterization since the philosophy of education has a more theoretical side as well, which includes the examination of the fundamental concepts and theories of education as well as their philosophical implications. These two sides are sometimes referred to as the outward and the inward looking nature of the philosophy of education. Its topics can range from very general questions, like the nature of the
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students and allow them to question things.He postulated that successful students were those who were encouraged to question new information and study it for themselves, rather than simply accepting what they had heard from the authorities on any given topic. Montaigne believed that a child's curiosity could serve as an important teaching tool when the child is allowed to explore the things that the child is curious about.
3043:'s philosophizing about education was primarily related to higher education. He believed that teaching and research in the university should be unified and that students should be taught "to focus on and explicitly investigate the ontological presuppositions which implicitly guide research in each domain of knowledge,” an approach he believed would "encourage revolutionary transformation in the sciences and humanities."12915:
2964:'s discovery of what she referred to as "the child's true normal nature" in 1907, which happened in the process of her experimental observation of young children given freedom in an environment prepared with materials designed for their self-directed learning activity. The method itself aims to duplicate this experimental observation of children to bring about, sustain and support their true natural way of being.3483:
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think on their own. Nothing of importance would be retained and no abilities would be learned. He believed that learning through experience was superior to learning through the use of books. For this reason he encouraged tutors to educate their students through practice, travel, and human interaction. In doing so, he argued that students would become active learners, who could claim knowledge for themselves.
3203:) curriculum which posited the idea that a curriculum should revisit basic ideas, building on them until the student had grasped the full formal concept. He emphasized intuition as a neglected but essential feature of productive thinking. He felt that interest in the material being learned was the best stimulus for learning rather than external motivation such as grades. Bruner developed the concept of1296:. Many suggestions concern the social domain, such as fostering a sense of community and solidarity and thus turning the individual into a productive member of society while protecting them from the potentially negative influences of society. The discussion of these positions and the arguments cited for and against them often include references to various disciplines in their justifications, such as2099:
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1503:, i.e. the question of what should be taught to students. This includes both the selection of subjects to be taught and the consideration of arguments for and against the inclusion of a particular topic. This issue is intimately tied to the aims of education: one may argue that a certain subject should be included in the curriculum because it serves one of the aims of education.3235:
teacher-student dichotomy be completely abolished, instead promoting the roles of the participants in the classroom as the teacher-student (a teacher who learns) and the student-teacher (a learner who teaches). In its early, strong form this kind of classroom has sometimes been criticized on the grounds that it can mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority.
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theories are built on a wider ethical framework of what is right or good and then arrive at their educational normative theories by applying this framework to the practice of education. But the descriptive and the normative approaches are intertwined and cannot always be clearly separated since descriptive findings often directly imply various normative attitudes.
3337:. Her belief was that a caring teacher-student relationship will result in the teacher designing a differentiated curriculum for each student, and that this curriculum would be based around the students' particular interests and needs. The teacher's claim to care must not be based on a one time virtuous decision but an ongoing interest in the students' welfare.1892:
principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics. The focus is primarily on teaching reasoning and wisdom rather than facts, the liberal arts rather than vocational training.
1863:. Standardized tests present the same questions and scoring system to all students taking the test and are often motivated by a desire for objective and fair evaluations both of students and schools. Opponents have argued that this approach tends to favor certain social groups over others and severely limits the creativity and effectiveness of teachers.1690:. In this sense, the demand for equality implies that education should open the same opportunities to everyone. This means, among other things, that students from higher social classes should not enjoy a competitive advantage over others. One difficulty with this demand, when understood in a wide sense, is that there are many sources of2727:, in which is introduced both of these concepts, Locke warns against, for example, letting "a foolish maid" convince a child that "goblins and sprites" are associated with the night for "darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more bear the one than the other."2996:
allowed to explore their environment, experiencing their learning through the natural senses. Proponents of Progressive Education and the Project Method reject traditional schooling that focuses on memorization, rote learning, strictly organized classrooms (desks in rows; students always seated), and typical forms of assessment.
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them fully develop their exceptional abilities and thereby benefit society at large. A similar problem is the issue of specialization. It concerns the question of whether all students should follow the same curriculum or to what extent they should specialize early on in specific fields according to their interests and skills.
3073:". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children. As the Director of the International Bureau of Education, he declared in 1934 that "only education is capable of saving our societies from possible collapse, whether violent, or gradual." Piaget created the International Centre for Genetic1479:, for example, education should emphasize the self-directedness of the students. On this view, it is up to the student to choose their own path in life. The role of education is to provide them with the necessary resources but it does not direct the student with respect to what constitutes an ethically2250:
for those who qualified. While elementary education made the soul responsive to the environment, higher education helped the soul to search for truth which illuminated it. Both boys and girls receive the same kind of education. Elementary education consisted of music and gymnastics, designed to train
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Democratic education is a theory of learning and school governance in which students and staff participate freely and equally in a school democracy. In a democratic school, there is typically shared decision-making among students and staff on matters concerning living, working, and learning together.
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that relies on long-standing and established subjects and teaching methods. Essentialists usually focus on subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, and science, usually starting with very basic skills while progressively increasing complexity. They prefer a teacher-centered approach, meaning that
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in public education. Some theorists have argued that it is counterproductive since it puts undue pressure on the students. But testing also plays various critical roles, such as providing feedback on the learning progress both to the student, their parents, and their teachers. Concrete discussions on
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A closely related topic is whether all students, both high and low performers, should be treated equally. According to some, more resources should be dedicated to low performers, to help them get to an average level, while others recommend a preferential treatment for high performers in order to help
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is often cited as one of the central aims of education. There is no generally accepted definition of critical thinking. But there is wide agreement that it is reasonable, reflective, careful, and focused on determining what to believe or how to act. It has clarity and rationality as its standards and
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There is wide consensus concerning certain general aims of education, like that it should foster all students, help them in the development of their ability to reason, and guide them in how to judge and act. But these general characteristics are usually too vague to be of much help and there are many
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A central question in the philosophy of education concerns the aims of education, i.e. the question of why people should be educated and what goals should be pursued in the process of education. This issue is highly relevant for evaluating educational practices and products by assessing how well they
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people the basis on which to develop into free, morally responsible and integrated individuals, and to help every child fulfill his or her unique destiny, the existence of which anthroposophy posits. Schools and teachers are given considerable freedom to define curricula within collegial structures.
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Learning is interdisciplinary, integrating practical, artistic, and conceptual elements. The approach emphasizes the role of the imagination in learning, developing thinking that includes a creative as well as an analytic component. The educational philosophy's overarching goals are to provide young
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theorists often see established educational practices as instruments of power used by elites in society to further their own interests. Important aspects in this regard are the unequal power relation between the state and its institutions in contrast to the individual as well as the control that can
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reject this power and argue that the children's welfare is best served in the absence of compulsory schooling in general. This is sometimes based on the idea that the best form of learning does not happen while studying but instead occurs as a side-effect while doing something else. This position is
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learned in these areas can be applied to various other fields and may thereby benefit the student in various ways. It has been argued that aesthetic education also has indirect effects on various other issues, such as shaping the student's sensibilities in the fields of morality and politics as well
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to arrive at conclusions by themselves and the disposition to question pre-existing beliefs should also be fostered, often with the goal of benefitting not just the student but society at large. But not everyone agrees with the positive role ascribed to critical thinking in education. Objections are
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responsible for verifying existing beliefs and arriving at new knowledge. It promotes the epistemic autonomy of students and may help them challenge unwarranted claims by epistemic authorities. In its widest sense, the epistemic approach includes various related goals, such as imparting true beliefs
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Theorists in this field often emphasize the importance of this form of investigation since all subsequent work on more specific issues already has to assume at least implicitly what their central terms mean to demarcate their field. For example, in order to study what constitutes good education, one
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While there is wide agreement on the general topics discussed in the philosophy of education, it has proven difficult to give a precise definition of it. The philosophy of education belongs mainly to applied philosophy. According to some definitions, it can be characterized as an offshoot of ethics.
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Aspects of the Freirian philosophy have been highly influential in academic debates over "participatory development" and development more generally. Freire's emphasis on what he describes as "emancipation" through interactive participation has been used as a rationale for the participatory focus of
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is best known for his attack on what he called the "banking concept of education", in which the student was viewed as an empty account to be filled by the teacher. Freire also suggests that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our notions of teacher and student; he comes close to suggesting that the
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in Suffolk, England, in 1921. He wrote a number of books that now define much of contemporary democratic education philosophy. Neill believed that the happiness of the child should be the paramount consideration in decisions about the child's upbringing, and that this happiness grew from a sense of
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schooling as the period of specialization, when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be given a choice to choose and specialize in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills,
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Aristotle placed great emphasis on balancing the theoretical and practical aspects of subjects taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as being important included reading, writing and mathematics; music; physical education; literature and history; and a wide range of sciences. He also mentioned the
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and postmodern theorists. They usually point to alleged biases and forms of discrimination present in current practices that should be eliminated. Feminists often hold that traditional education is overly man-oriented and thereby oppresses women in some form. This bias was present to severe degrees
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The existentialist sees the world as one's personal subjectivity, where goodness, truth, and reality are individually defined. Reality is a world of existing, truth subjectively chosen, and goodness a matter of freedom. The subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of personal
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the claims of teachers and books. It has been argued that this issue depends a lot on the age and the intellectual development of the student. In the earlier stages of education, a high level of trust on the side of the students may be necessary. But the more their intellectual capacities develop,
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Another categorization divides topics in the philosophy of education into the nature and aims of education on the one hand, and the methods and circ*mstances of education on the other hand. The latter section may again be divided into concrete normative theories and the study of the conceptual and
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the International Society for the Philosophy of Music Education (ISPME) is founded on both educational and professional objectives: "devoted to the specific interests of philosophy of music education in elementary through secondary schools, colleges and universities, in private studios, places of
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stated that education, in its broadest sense, is the means of the "social continuity of life" given the "primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group". Education is therefore a necessity, for "the life of the group goes on." Dewey was a
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was a British educator who invested her life in improving the quality of children's education. Her ideas led to a method used by some homeschoolers. Mason's philosophy of education is probably best summarized by the principles given at the beginning of each of her books. Two key mottos taken from
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Experience also was a key element to learning for Montaigne. Tutors needed to teach students through experience rather than through the mere memorization of information often practised in book learning.He argued that students would become passive adults, blindly obeying and lacking the ability to
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Montaigne's views on the education of children were opposed to the common educational practices of his day. He found fault both with what was taught and how it was taught. Much of the education during Montaigne's time was focused on the reading of the classics and learning through books.Montaigne
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Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates' emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since
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When the soul and body are united, then nature orders the soul to rule and govern, and the body to obey and serve. Now which of these two functions is akin to the divine? and which to the mortal? Does not the divine appear... to be that which naturally orders and rules, and the mortal to be
1649:. The children and their parents usually have few to no ways of opting out or changing the established curriculum. An important question in this respect is why or whether modern states are justified to use this form of power. For example, various liberationist movements belonging to the fields of2813:
believed that education differs from training in that the former involves thinking whereas the latter does not. In addition to educating reason, of central importance to him was the development of character and teaching of moral maxims. Kant was a proponent of public education and of learning by
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At the foundation Montaigne believed that the selection of a good tutor was important for the student to become well educated. Education by a tutor was to be conducted at the pace of the student.He believed that a tutor should be in dialogue with the student, letting the student speak first. The
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was one of the pioneers of the latter approach. In this case, inspiration for enriching the content, format, or teaching methods may be sought through various practices, such as consciously reviewing the previous day's activities; actively holding the students in consciousness; and contemplating
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A recurrent demand on public education is that all students should be treated equally and in a fair manner. One reason for this demand is that education plays a central role for the child's path and prospects in life, which should not be limited by unfair or arbitrary external circ*mstances. But
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organized curriculum and classroom activities around a subject's central theme. He believed that the role of a teacher should be that of a "guide" as opposed to an authoritarian figure. Kilpatrick believed that children should direct their own learning according to their interests and should be
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Individualized learning was integral to his theory of child education. He argued that the student combines information already known with what is learned and forms a unique perspective on the newly learned information. Montaigne also thought that tutors should encourage the natural curiosity of
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focuses on bringing introspective practices such as mindfulness and yoga into curricular and pedagogical processes for diverse aims grounded in secular, spiritual, religious and post-secular perspectives. Contemplative approaches may be used in the classroom, especially in tertiary or (often in
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The Classical education movement advocates a form of education based in the traditions of Western culture, with a particular focus on education as understood and taught in the Middle Ages. The term "classical education" has been used in English for several centuries, with each era modifying the
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having this individual as its member. In many cases, the interests of both are aligned. On the one hand, many new opportunities in life open to the individual through education, especially concerning their career. On the other hand, education makes it more likely that the person becomes a good,
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of these beliefs, i.e. without presenting proper arguments and reasons for adopting them. According to another, the beliefs are instilled in such a way as to discourage the student to question or assess for themselves the believed contents. In this sense, the goals of indoctrination are exactly
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questions, which ask not whether a theory about education is true or false, but how one can arrive at the knowledge to answer such questions. Normative theories, on the other hand, try to give an account of how education should be practiced or what is the right form of education. Some normative
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Rousseau was unusual in that he recognized and addressed the potential of a problem of legitimation for teaching. He advocated that adults always be truthful with children, and in particular that they never hide the fact that the basis for their authority in teaching was purely one of physical
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Perennialists believe that one should teach the things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach
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taught in elementary schools before becoming a professor of education at the University of Illinois, where he served as the Director of the School of Education from 1908 until 1917. He was a professor of education at Teachers College, Columbia, from 1917 to 1940. An opponent of pragmatism and
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Montaigne's views on child education continue to have an influence in the present. Variations of Montaigne's ideas on education are incorporated into modern learning in some ways. He argued against the popular way of teaching in his day, encouraging individualized learning. He believed in the
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In 1896, Dewey opened the Laboratory School at the University of Chicago in an institutional effort to pursue together rather than apart "utility and culture, absorption and expression, theory and practice, are elements in any educational scheme. As the unified head of the departments of
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and it is not always in the best interest to eliminate all of them. For example, parents who are concerned with their young children's education may read them bedtime stories early on and thereby provide them with a certain advantage over other children who do not enjoy this privilege. But
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The Spencer Foundation provides funding for investigations that promise to yield new knowledge about education in the United States or abroad. The Foundation funds research grants that range in size from smaller grants that can be completed within a year, to larger, multi-year endeavours.
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in education. Thick definitions include additional normative components, for example, by stating that the process in question has to have certain positive results to be called education. According to one thick definition, education means that the person educated has acquired knowledge and
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has to have a notion of what the term "education" means and how to achieve, measure, and evaluate it. Definitions of education can be divided into thin and thick definitions. Thin definitions are neutral and descriptive. They usually emphasize the role of the transmission of knowledge and
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that all children are perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which consisted of removing the child from
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and has remained so to the present day. But it only emerged as a distinct branch of philosophy in the latter half of the 20th century, when it became the subject of a systematic study and analysis. The term "education" can refer either to the process of educating or to the field of study
1606:, beliefs, and interests under a false cover. This is sometimes utilized to advance an approach focused on more diversity, for example, by giving more prominence in education to the great variety of cultures, customs, languages, and lifestyles without giving preference to any of them.1219:
intellectual skills, values these factors, and has thus changed for the better. These characteristics can then be used to distinguish education from other closely related terms, such as "indoctrination". Other fundamental notions in the philosophy of education include the concepts of
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forms of education. Nonetheless, feminists often contend that certain problems still persist in contemporary education. Some argue, for example, that this manifests itself in the prominence given to cognitive development in education, which is said to be associated primarily with
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Locke expressed the belief that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet", with the statement, "I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."
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societies often focus on the inequality they cause by sorting students for different economic positions. While overtly this process happens based on individual effort and desert, they argue that this just masks and reinforces the underlying influence of the preexisting
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He once said that a child should grow up without adult interference and that the child must be guided to suffer from the experience of the natural consequences of his own acts or behaviour. When he experiences the consequences of his own acts, he advises himself.
2045:, rather than through a more traditional school curriculum. Unschooling encourages exploration of activities led by the children themselves, facilitated by the adults. Unschooling differs from conventional schooling principally in the thesis that standard1412:
component monitoring not just the solution of the problem at hand but also ensuring that it complies with its own standards in the process. In this sense, education is not just about conveying many true beliefs to the students. Instead, the students'
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is a recent contemporary approach in which the methods of both camps are combined. The question of the most promising approach is relevant to how funding budgets are spent on research, which in its turn has important implications for policymaking.
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tutor also should allow for discussions and debates to be had. Such a dialogue was intended to create an environment in which students would teach themselves. They would be able to realize their mistakes and make corrections to them as necessary.
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are landmarks in conceptualizing learning and curriculum development. He argued that any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. This notion was an underpinning for his concept of the
858:. Many of its theories focus specifically on education in schools but it also encompasses other forms of education. Its theories are often divided into descriptive theories, which provide a value-neutral description of what education is, and3008:
progressive education, Bagley insisted on the value of knowledge for its own sake, not merely as an instrument, and he criticized his colleagues for their failure to emphasize systematic study of academic subjects. Bagley was a proponent of
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and harmonics. The first course in the scheme of higher education would last for ten years. It would be for those who had a flair for science. At the age of 30 there would be another selection; those who qualified would study dialectics and
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PESGB promotes the study, teaching and application of philosophy of education. It has an international membership. The site provides: a guide to the Society's activities and details about the Journal of Philosophy of Education and IMPACT.
1043:. Its theories are often formulated from the perspective of these other philosophical disciplines. But due to its interdisciplinary nature, it also attracts contributions from scholars belonging to fields outside the domain of philosophy.2661:
importance of experience, over book learning and memorization. Ultimately, Montaigne postulated that the point of education was to teach a student how to have a successful life by practicing an active and socially interactive lifestyle.
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the role of testing often focus less on whether it should be done at all and more on how much importance should be ascribed to the test results. This also includes questions about the form of testing, for example, whether it should be
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disallowing such practices to level the field would have serious negative side-effects. A weaker position on this issue does not demand full equality but holds instead that educational policies should ensure that certain factors, like
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1822:. The qualitative approach, on the other hand, gives more weight to particular case studies for reaching its conclusions. Its opponents hold that this approach lacks the methodological rigor to arrive at well-warranted knowledge. The3380:
PES is the national society for philosophy of education in the United States. This site provides information about PES, its services, history, and publications, and links to online resources relevant to the philosophy of education.
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While many positions about what subjects to include in the curriculum are controversial, some particular issues stand out where these controversies go beyond the academic discourse to a wide public discourse, like questions about
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as well as its aims and problems. It also examines the concepts and presuppositions of education theories. It is an interdisciplinary field that draws inspiration from various disciplines both within and outside philosophy, like
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This Society is a professional association of philosophers of education which holds annual meetings in the Midwest region of the United States and sponsors a discussion forum and a Graduate Student Competition. Affiliate of the
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should be taught as a distinct subject and, if so, whether it should be compulsory. Other questions include which religion or religions should be taught and to what degree religious views should influence other topics, such as
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2216:, with great care being taken to differentiate children suitable to the various castes, the highest receiving the most education, so that they could act as guardians of the city and care for the less able. Education would be3032:
personal freedom. He felt that deprivation of this sense of freedom during childhood, and the consequent unhappiness experienced by the repressed child, was responsible for many of the psychological disorders of adulthood.
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2495:. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.11473:
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law-abiding, and productive member of society. But this issue becomes more problematic in cases where the interests of the individual and society conflict with each other. This poses the question of whether individual
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2702:"The business of education is not, as I think, to make them perfect in any one of the sciences, but so to open and dispose their minds as may best make them capable of any, when they shall apply themselves to it."2526:; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts." He further argued that the intellect itself "possesses levels of development from the material intellect (3243:. "He participated in the import of European doctrines and ideas into Brazil, assimilated them to the needs of a specific socio-economic situation, and thus expanded and refocused them in a thought-provoking way"1527:. Disagreements in this area concern which aspects are taught and in which detail as well as to which age groups these teachings should be directed. Debates on religious education include questions like whether12526:
3108:): "What the genetic epistemology proposes is discovering the roots of the different varieties of knowledge, since its elementary forms, following to the next levels, including also the scientific knowledge."3207:
which promoted learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current or past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover facts and relationships and continually build on what they already know.
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manage to realize these goals. There is a lot of disagreement and various theories have been proposed concerning the aims of education. Prominent suggestions include that education should foster knowledge,
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1131:, have developed their own perspective on the main issues of education. They often include normative theories about how education should or should not be practiced and are in most cases controversial.12699:
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was best served by being subordinated to a just society due to a shift in emphasis that departed from his predecessors. The mind and body were to be considered separate entities. In the dialogues of
1726:. This is sometimes integrated into a wider Marxist perspective on society which holds that education in capitalist societies plays the role of upholding this inequality and thereby reproduces the12531:
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Philosophy, Psychology and Pedagogy, John Dewey articulated a desire to organize an educational experience where children could be more creative than the best of progressive models of his day.
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ignited a firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk shows, wrote book reviews for
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1442:. An intimately related issue is whether the aim of education is to mold the mind of the pupil or to liberate it by strengthening its capacity for critical and independent inquiry.12749:
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inspiring pedagogical texts. Zigler suggested that only through focusing on their own spiritual development could teachers positively impact the spiritual development of students.
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society—for example, to a country home—and alternately conditioning him through changes to his environment and setting traps and puzzles for him to solve or overcome.
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perspective, which in its emphasis on practice sees students not as passive absorbers but as active learners that should be encouraged to discover and learn things by themselves.
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Steiner's theory of child development divides education into three discrete developmental stages predating but with close similarities to the stages of development described by
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Waldorf education (also known as Steiner or Steiner-Waldorf education) is a humanistic approach to pedagogy based upon the educational philosophy of the Austrian philosopher
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opposite to other aims of education, such as rationality and critical thinking. In this sense, education tries to impart not just beliefs but also make the students more
1371:, for example, to pass on knowledge accumulated in the societal effort from one generation to the next. This process may be seen both as the development of the student's1202:
The starting point of many philosophical inquiries into a field is the examination and clarification of the fundamental concepts used in this field, often in the form of
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for the next five years. After accepting junior positions in the army for 15 years, a man would have completed his theoretical and practical education by the age of 50.
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premised on the assumption that an educated minority of the population were, by virtue of their education (and inborn educability), sufficient for healthy governance.
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coercion: "I'm bigger than you." Once children reached the age of reason, at about 12, they would be engaged as free individuals in the ongoing process of their own.
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there are various disagreements about how this demand is best understood and whether it is applicable in all cases. An initial problem concerns what is meant by "
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to uncover the general causal factors responsible for educational phenomena. It has been criticized based on the claim that its method, which is inspired by the
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Plato's writings contain some of the following ideas: Elementary education would be confined to the guardian class till the age of 18, followed by two years of
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Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences." He argued that the "
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should be taught to the students. This way, many of the disagreements in moral philosophy are reflected in the field of moral education. Some theorists in the
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as a pragmatic philosophy grew out of the work he did in the Laboratory School. The two most influential works that stemmed from his research and study were
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is another issue in the philosophy of education. Of specific interest on this topic is that the modern states compel children to attend school, so-called
1260:, and critical thinking while also promoting the tendency to think, feel, and act morally. The individual should thereby develop as a person, and achieve2307:
are still in existence. We thus know of his philosophy of education primarily through brief passages in other works. Aristotle considered human nature,
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According to educational essentialism, there are certain essential facts about the world that every student needs to learn and master. It is a form of
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1162:, theories of teaching and learning, the measurement of learning, knowledge and its value, cultivating reason, epistemic and moral aims of education,975:
often try to uncover and challenge biases and forms of discrimination present in current educational practices. Other philosophical movements include
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orientation, with little attention paid to ideas from outside Europe and North America, but this is starting to change in the 21st century due to
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Another approach is to simply list all topics discussed in the philosophy of education. Among them are the issues and presuppositions concerning
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1015:. As the philosophical study of education, it investigates its topic similar to how other discipline-specific branches of philosophy, like the12556:
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4738:"Indoctrination and Social Context: A System-Based Approach to Identifying the Threat of Indoctrination and the Responsibilities of Educators"3607:
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development, as it is held that 'participation' in any form can lead to empowerment of poor or marginalised groups. Freire was a proponent of
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often rejected by pointing out that it is based on overly optimistic presuppositions about the children's natural and unguided development of
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or knowledge to the students as well as teaching dispositions and abilities, such as rationality, critical thinking, understanding, and other
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methods, as well as other features of traditional schooling, are counterproductive to the goal of maximizing the education of each child.
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Many theories emphasize the epistemic aims of education. According to the epistemic approach, the central aim of education has to do with
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A recurrent source of disagreement about the aims of education concerns the question of who is the primary beneficiary of education: the
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accounts hold that the ultimate aim of education is to produce some form of epistemic good, such as truth, knowledge, and understanding.
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of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action." Based in
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accounts, the character traits or virtues of the learner play the central role, often with an emphasis on moral and civic traits like
1210:. It aims to make ambiguities explicit and to uncover various implicit and potentially false assumptions associated with these terms.7103:
2730:"Associationism", as this theory would come to be called, exerted a powerful influence over eighteenth-century thought, particularly1379:, who emphasize experimentation and critical thinking over the transmission of knowledge. Others have argued that this constitutes a8013:
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Different subdivisions of the philosophy of education have been suggested. One categorization distinguishes between descriptive and
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2778:' in that it was an active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to learn and adapt to its surroundings.12481:
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methodological presuppositions of these theories. Other classifications additionally include areas for topics such as the role of
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approach based on emotion and intuition. A related criticism holds that there is an overemphasis on abilities belonging to the
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Ernest, Paul; Skovsmose, Ole; van Bendegem, Jean Paul; Bicudo, Maria; Miarka, Roger; Kvasz, Ladislav; Moeller, Regina (2016).
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issues. Descriptive theories aim to describe what education is and how to understand its related concepts. This includes also
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or rather on the abilities to reason and arrive at new knowledge. In this context, many theorists emphasize the importance of
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The Center for Dewey Studies at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale was established in 1961 as the "Dewey Project".
1543:. This field is sometimes referred to as "educational ethics". Disagreements in this field concern which moral beliefs and12371:
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the teacher acts as the authority figure guiding the learning activity while students are expected to follow their lead.
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accounts, on the other hand, see the development of certain skills, like rationality as well as critical and independent
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that concern both perception, affect, and judgment in regard to moral situations. A related issue, heavily discussed in
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3318:(1989) and later works on moral education, most of her later publications have been on the philosophy of education and12856:
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2514:, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "2139:
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can provide important general insights. More specific questions about the curriculum of a particular subject, such as
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A Brazilian philosopher and educator committed to the cause of educating the impoverished peasants of his nation and
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by using wide experimental studies. Others prefer a qualitative approach, which is closer to the methodology of the
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Painting With Impasto: Metaphors, Mirrors, and Reflective Regression in Montagne's 'Of the Education of Children.'
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in general. They use this claim to argue against universal forms of education, which they see as hiding particular
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Ergas, Oren (13 December 2013). "Mindfulness in education at the intersection of science, religion, and healing".
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familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "
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entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children", as a guide to teachers working at
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of the fundamental concepts of education. Others center around the aims or purpose of education, like passing on
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6973:"Jean-Jacques Rousseau on Sophy's Education | Chapter 5: Learning Personalities | New Learning | New Learning"802:
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6603:(NY: Norton, 1950, rev. 1998, ed. Thomas Mathiesen), 1-32. books.google.com/books?id=ZtCYwFm2mTwC&pg=PA314108:
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explain the views he had on child education. Some of his views on child education are still relevant today.
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Plato believed that talent was distributed non-genetically and thus must be found in children born in any
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An important methodological divide in this area, often referred to as the "paradigm wars", is between the
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Moss, Peter (27 November 2012). "1. The relationshipt between early childhood and compulsory education".
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Critical pedagogy is an "educational movement, guided by passion and principle, to help students develop
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One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps its most important, was to produce good and
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5680:"KNOWLEDGE/POWER AND POSTMODERNISM: Implications for the Practice of a Critical Social Work Education"2913:
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Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on the principle that humans are
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Various schools of philosophy have developed their own perspective on the main issues of education.
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6041:"Paradigm Wars Revisited: A Cartography of Graduate Research in the Field of Education (1980–2010)"4051:
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6093:"The Paradigm Wars and Their Aftermath: A "Historical" Sketch of Research on Teaching since 1989"1499:
An important and controversial issue in the philosophy of education concerns the contents of the
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Many of the more specific discussions in the philosophy of education concern the contents of the
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On this premise, Plato advocated removing children from their mothers' care and raising them as
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may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail that may interest only a particular audience
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composed an outline on how to educate this mind in order to increase its powers and activity:
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as well as the transmission of a valuable heritage. Such an approach is sometimes rejected by
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Finally, yet another way that philosophy of education is often tacitly divided is in terms of
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but only emerged as a systematic branch of philosophy in the latter half of the 20th century.
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A great variety of topics is discussed in the philosophy of education. Some studies provide a
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1515:. Controversies in sex education involve both biological aspects, such as the functioning of14258:
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7678:(Westview Press, Dimension of Philosophy Series), by Nel Noddings, Paperback edition, 1995,4503:
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All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been convinced that the fate of
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until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote that they should be taught the
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At the age of 20, a selection was made. The best students would take an advanced course in
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Thomson, Iain (2002). "Heidegger on Ontological Education"". In Peters, Michael A. (ed.).
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Beuchert, Louise; Eriksen, Tine Louise Mundbjerg; Krægpøth, Morten Visby (1 August 2020).
4588:"Critical thinking, biases and dual processing: The enduring myth of generalisable skills"3888:
Siegel, Harvey (30 October 2009). "Introduction: Philosophy of Education and Philosophy".
3148:
2744:
2626:
2593:
2534:), the state of the human intellect in conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge."2480:
2467:
2448:
1512:
1393:
1207:
1203:
1181:” perspectives. For many generations, philosophy of education has maintained a relatively1147:
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20:
8:
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900:. This involves the questions of whether, when, and in what detail a certain topic, like14218:
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and blend gentle and fierce qualities in the individual and create a harmonious person.
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were to be trained by the state so that they might be qualified to assume the role of a
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Locke's Conduct of the understanding; edited with introd., notes, etc. by Thomas Fowler
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Locke's Conduct of the understanding; edited with introd., notes, etc. by Thomas Fowler
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2491:, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future14007:
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7592:(Blackwell Companions to Philosophy), ed. by Randall Curren, Paperback edition, 2006,7579:
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4810:
Reich, Rob (30 October 2009). "Educational Authority and the Interests of Children".
4629:
4326:
4231:
908:, should be taught. Other debates focus on the specific contents and methods used in14263:
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Munoz-Najar Galvez, Sebastian; Heiberger, Raphael; McFarland, Daniel (9 July 2019).
6000:
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Borchert, Donald, ed. (2006). "Philosophy Of Education, Epistemological Issues In".
4298:
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with them in the pursuit of their liberation from what he regarded as "oppression",
3040:
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The theories within the philosophy of education can also be subdivided based on the
1072:
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633:
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618:
334:
250:
13932:
7528:
http://www.thehomeschoolmagazine.com/How_To_Homeschool/articles/articles.php?aid=97
4914:
4094:
Frankena, William; Burbules, Nicholas; Raybeck, Nathan. "Philosophy Of Education".
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9752:
9717:
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9344:
9302:
9213:
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8344:
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3440:
worship, and all the other places and ways in which music is taught and learned."
3124:
3062:
2822:
2580:"from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a2572:
2452:
2030:
1819:
1700:
1683:
1670:
1560:
1552:
1540:
1488:
1380:
1293:
1281:
1151:
956:
945:
925:
909:
760:
648:
344:
8958:
7706:
6738:
The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England
6485:
6167:
6150:
5526:
5499:
5460:
5033:
2428:
school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a
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10943:
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9722:
9590:
9555:
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9297:
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9085:
8998:
8841:
8737:
8480:
8160:
7942:
7858:
5421:
5001:"Ontario government releases new sex-ed curriculum, similar to scrapped version"4643:
Adler, Jonathan E. (2009). "Why Fallibility Has Not Mattered and How It Could".
3305:
2848:
2601:
2460:
2404:, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of1994:
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as well as issues pertaining to social and political topics and the curriculum.
972:
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7524:
The Old Schoolhouse Meets Up with Patrick Farenga About the Legacy of John Holt
6237:
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2916:
and was a relentless campaigner for reform of education, pointing out that the
1738:
in earlier forms of education and a lot of progress has been made towards more
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13942:
13892:
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13180:
12994:
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10557:
10422:
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9782:
9694:
9624:
9366:
9156:
9090:
9047:
8916:
8541:
8327:
8309:
7629:
5528:
The Unschooling Handbook: How to Use the Whole World As Your Child's Classroom
5498:
Dickerson, Adam (17 May 2019). "1. Only the Experts Shall Speak or Be Heard".
4973:
4956:
4586:
Monteiro, Sandra; Sherbino, Jonathan; Sibbald, Matthew; Norman, Geoff (2020).
4302:
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1998:
1941:
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1665:
1508:
1409:
1236:
1215:
1135:
1124:
992:
901:
775:
7268:
Phillips, Trevor J. (2015-11-22). Tibbels, Kirkland; Patterson, John (eds.).
7240:
Phillips, Trevor J. (2015-11-22). Tibbels, Kirkland; Patterson, John (eds.).
7212:
Phillips, Trevor J. (2015-11-22). Tibbels, Kirkland; Patterson, John (eds.).
6520:
6256:
6176:
6116:
6066:
6057:
6040:
6014:
6005:
5989:"Moving Beyond the Paradigm Wars: Emergent Approaches for Education Research"5988:
5987:
Pivovarova, Margarita; Powers, Jeanne M.; Fischman, Gustavo E. (March 2020).
5930:
5753:
5695:
5656:
5592:
5416:. ICME-13 Topical Surveys. Springer International Publishing. pp.1–26.5385:
5327:
5189:
5140:
5131:
4982:
4922:
4864:
4613:
4421:
Siegel, Harvey (2006). "PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION, EPISTEMOLOGICAL ISSUES IN".
4310:
4256:
Brighouse, Harry (30 October 2009). "Moral and Political Aims of Education".
4223:
4189:
2316:
13952:
13947:
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13852:
13787:
13747:
13717:
13712:
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7863:
6878:
6855:
6563:
5462:
Early Childhood and Compulsory Education: Reconceptualising the relationship
4753:
4515:
4462:
3841:
Curren, Randall (1996). "Education, philosophy of". In Craig, Edward (ed.).
3297:
3231:
3220:
3171:
3093:
3074:
2507:
2232:
2224:
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2120:
any relevant information, and removing excessive detail that may be against
1739:
1733:
Other criticisms of the dominant paradigms in education are often voiced by
1723:
1704:
1609:
Different approaches to solving these disputes are employed. In some cases,
1305:
1182:
1178:
1088:
1032:
976:
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324:
10846:
5158:
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The different theories of the aims of education are sometimes divided into
14233:
14028:
14002:
13997:
13797:
13782:
13649:
13629:
13609:
13461:
13436:
13395:
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13117:
13075:
13038:
13004:
11931:
10841:
10698:
9808:
9747:
9619:
9599:
9504:
9441:
9401:
9381:
9307:
9277:
8938:
8874:
8566:
8551:
8427:
8417:
8366:
8332:
8271:
8033:
7998:
7848:
7766:
7412:
6893:
Some Thoughts Concerning Education and Of the Conduct of the Understanding
4061:
3501:
3055:
3051:
3020:
2875:
2775:
2577:
2559:
2503:
2463:, and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).2405:
2268:
2255:
2012:
1840:
1744:
1659:
1654:
1650:
1626:
1564:
1439:
1435:
1257:
1167:
1084:
1036:
964:
859:
770:
740:
395:
6190:
Curren, Randall (30 October 2009). "Pragmatist Philosophy of Education".
2530:), that potentiality that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (2080:
Contemplative methods may also be used by teachers in their preparation;
14238:
14198:
13767:
13757:
13634:
13564:
13451:
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13400:
13344:
13339:
13294:
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9431:
9421:
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9141:
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8928:
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8561:
8475:
8304:
8251:
8215:
8119:
8059:
7962:
7833:
7813:
6712:
5786:
Burbules, Nicholas C. (30 October 2009). "Postmodernism and Education".
5703:
5679:
5197:
5173:
4930:
4898:
4872:
4840:
2980:
2908:
2894:
2742:'s attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his2735:
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2585:
2555:
2551:
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1008:
897:
851:
834:
403:
34:
7762:
Thinkers of Education. UNESCO-International Bureau of Education website
7444:
6124:
6092:
5335:
5303:
4604:
4587:
4389:
Robertson, Emily (30 October 2009). "The Epistemic Aims of Education".
4318:
4286:
4181:
2904:
Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education
2376:(which referred to higher education), a maktab was often attached to a1843:
that passively absorbs information and is filled with contents through
14278:
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13992:
13867:
13594:
13365:
13289:
13196:
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9257:
9191:
9003:
8993:
8988:
8963:
8759:
8319:
8281:
7166:
5955:
Noddings, Nel (30 October 2009). "Feminist Philosophy and Education".
5938:
5906:
4737:
4207:
3128:
3123:, educator, and popular author. As a philosopher he worked within the2890:
2864:
2860:
2523:
2519:
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2300:
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2046:
2038:
2018:
1953:
1603:
1368:
1309:
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or whether public schools should implement standardized curricula and
1048:
1012:
968:
874:
870:
855:
838:
8894:
6507:
Zigler, Ronald Lee (1999). "Tacit Knowledge and Spiritual Pedagogy".
5377:
4856:
3216:
1288:
to authority, and ideological purity, sometimes also with a focus on
42:
14203:
13679:
13405:
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9499:
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9329:
9317:
9105:
8899:
8799:
8742:
8546:
8500:
8384:
7952:
6534:
6108:
6038:
5631:"Standardized testing and school segregation: like tinder for fire?"5319:
5115:"Beyond Controversies: Sexuality Education for Adolescents in India"5074:
Arragon, Leo Van; Beaman, Lori G. (1 January 2015). "Introduction".
4351:
4349:
4347:
3842:
3516:
3182:
Another important contributor to the inquiry method in education is
2868:
2839:
2554:(known as "Abubacer" or "Ebn Tophail" in the West) demonstrated the2381:
2373:
2331:
2320:
2292:
2259:
2217:
1957:
1763:, in contrast to equally important characteristics belonging to the1734:
1618:
1576:
1528:
1472:
1388:
1348:
1340:
1277:
1224:
1220:
1128:
1101:
936:. Some philosophers of education promote a quantitative approach to905:
438:
7691:
Young Education in Retrospect: Policy And Implementation Since 1990
7158:
5922:
5361:
924:
children to attend school. A different issue is the problem of the
916:. Some philosophers investigate the relation between education and13441:
13304:
13085:
13043:
13026:
10542:
9126:
9100:
9095:
9037:
9032:
8864:
8752:
8747:
8706:
8528:
8374:
8256:
6509:
Journal of Beliefs & Values: Studies in Religion and Education
6279:"Existentialism - By Branch / Doctrine - The Basics of Philosophy"4781:
Callan, Eamonn; Arena, Dylan (30 October 2009). "Indoctrination".
4007:
4005:
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3333:
Noddings' contribution to education philosophy centers around the
3136:
1772:
1714:
1579:
can be taught at all instead of just being an inborn disposition.
1467:
1414:
1356:
1352:
1273:
1228:
1120:
920:, often specifically regarding the power used by modern states to890:
5409:
5304:"The Relations of Philosophy of Education to Aesthetic Education"4344:
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3913:
2029:
through their natural life experiences, including child directed
1929:
1835:
One question concerns how the learners are to be conceptualized.
1425:
The problem of critical thinking is closely connected to that of
14223:
13314:
13284:
13136:
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12979:
9391:
9312:
9042:
8701:
8691:
8389:
8291:
7982:
7576:
Classic and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Education
7076:
Classic and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Education
5684:
Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social
3742:
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3678:
3482:
3263:, asserting that the academic failure of schoolchildren was not3196:
3078:
2492:
2417:
2377:
2368:
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878:
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385:
7320:, Maria Montessori, pp. 79–81, Publ. Random House, 1988,7299:
7145:
Dewey, John (1904). "Significance of the School of Education".
4899:"Political Liberalism, Civic Education, and Educational Choice"3676:
3674:
3672:
3670:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3662:
3660:
3658:
2291:
Bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by
2189:'s educational philosophy was grounded in a vision of an ideal862:
theories, which investigate how education should be practiced.
13324:
13319:
13299:
13107:
9207:
8869:
8155:
7618:
Hebert, David G. (February 11, 2023). Hebert, David G. (ed.).
4508:
The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education
4455:
The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Thinking in Higher Education
4050:
Phillips, D.C. (2010). "1. What is Philosophy of Education?".
3910:
3340:
3314:. While her work on ethics continued, with the publication of3200:
2589:
2401:
2396:
schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in
2335:
2272:
2235:. What this established was essentially a system of selective2186:
2171:
2167:
2026:
2022:
1539:
Another prominent topic in this field concerns the subject of
1289:
390:
8088:
7621:
Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education
7343:
7321:
4585:
4138:
Comparative and Decolonial Studies in Philosophy of Education
2987:
movement of the early 20th century. Kilpatrick developed the
2315:
to be equally important forces to be cultivated in education.
1387:
in the students as well as teaching the methods and forms of
967:
give particular prominence to active learning and discovery.
13309:
10184:
5113:
Khubchandani, Jagdish; Clark, Jeffrey; Kumar, Raman (2014).
3655:
3367:
INPE sponsors an international conference every other year.
2979:
philosopher of education and a colleague and a successor of
2506:' was also developed by Ibn Sina. He argued that the "human2034:
1480:
1372:
6369:
Because Teaching Matters: An Introduction to the Profession
1475:
should take precedence over communal welfare. According to
1062:
The problem of education was already an important topic in
1051:
worth teaching, to more specific issues, like how to teach
9052:
7391:. New York, NY: Rowman and Littlefield. pp.141–142.2075:
The Association for Contemplative Mind in Higher Education
1997:
who learn best in real-life activities with other people.
1673:, specifically the knowledge passed on through education.1583:
1491:
by being part of the community and sharing a common good.
1052:
7481:
An Exposition of Constructivism: Why Some Like it Radical
5035:
Crisis, Controversy and the Future of Religious Education
3302:
Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education
7433:
Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education
7342:, Maria Montessori, p.46, Publ. Ballantine Books, 1972,6809:
Influence of ten leading educators on American education
6219:
Smith, William C.; Holloway, Jessica (1 November 2020).
5986:
5362:"The relation of psychology to philosophy and education"2625:
Child education was among the psychological topics that
2576:, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a1707:, do not pose obstacles to the equality of opportunity.1686:". In the field of education, it is often understood as995:. The history of the philosophy of education started in7126:
John Dewey, the Modern Father of Experiential Education
6407:
Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Education
5566:
3747:
Siegel, Harvey; Phillips, D.C.; Callan, Eamonn (2018).
3432:
International Society for Philosophy of Music Education
1559:
agents who can tell right from wrong. Theorists in the
1399:
1111:
they belong to. Various schools of philosophy, such as
7271:
Transactionalism: An Historical and Interpretive Study
7243:
Transactionalism: An Historical and Interpretive Study
7215:
Transactionalism: An Historical and Interpretive Study
6795:. "Journal of Education" 1997, Vol. 179 Issue 1, p. 615112:
3322:. Her most significant works in these areas have been2372:, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like1783:
The philosophy of education is also interested in the
14079:
The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction
7003:"Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Father of Government Schools"6535:"Plato: Phaedo | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"6225:
Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability
5032:
Barnes, L. Philip (5 December 2019). "Introduction".
3883:
3881:
3879:
3877:
3875:
3873:
3871:
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3867:
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3836:
3834:
3832:
3830:
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2834:
1669:
thus be employed due to the close connection between
1445:
An important consequence of this debate concerns the
7411:"International Bureau of Education - Directors" <4705:
Siegel, Harvey (2018). "Epistemology of education".
3792:
3790:
3788:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3746:
3571:"Philosophy of Education - Courses - NYU Steinhardt"3464:
2859:, his pedagogy emphasizes a balanced development of2227:. He built on this by insisting that those suitably1806:. The quantitative approach usually focuses on wide1197:
5815:
5813:
5811:
4093:
2991:for early childhood education, which was a form of1595:as heightening their awareness of self and others.1483:path in life. This position is usually rejected by7658:The Oxford Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education7604:The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Education4045:
4043:
4041:
4039:
3862:
3360:International Network of Philosophers of Education3131:traditions. He lived for the longest stretches in1284:, while others stress the importance of docility,7274:(2ed.). Influence Ecology. pp.171–2.6564:"The Internet Classics Archive | Phaedo by Plato"6221:"School testing culture and teacher satisfaction"5982:
5980:
5828:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.5820:Shields, Liam; Newman, Anne; Satz, Debra (2017).5819:
5174:"Knowledge and Virtue: Paradox in Plato's "Meno""4563:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.4424:Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition4359:Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2nd Edition3771:
3755:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.3304:(1984) followed close on the 1982 publication of3081:in 1955 and directed it until 1980. According to2435:Ibn Sina wrote that children should be sent to a1590:in public education. It has been argued that the1206:. This approach is particularly prominent in the14304:
6765:, 4th ed., Pearson Education, Inc. 2009, p. 112.6591:Oliver Strunk, "Introduction"; and Plato, "From5907:"The Marxist Sociology of Education: A Critique"5808:
4384:
4382:
4380:
3401:Society for the Philosophical Study of Education3387:Philosophy of Education Society of Great Britain2412:among pupils as well as the usefulness of group2021:philosophies and practices centered on allowing1011:that examines the nature, aims, and problems of948:and tends to give more prominence to individual6683:M. S. Asimov, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1999).6654:M. S. Asimov, Clifford Edmund Bosworth (1999).5950:
5948:
5730:"Postmodern Education and the Concept of Power"5629:Knoester, Matthew; Au, Wayne (2 January 2017).5624:
5622:
4036:
2388:in the West), wrote a chapter dealing with the12763:
12318:
7246:(2ed.). Influence Ecology. p.167.7218:(2ed.). Influence Ecology. p.166.6193:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education5977:
5958:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education5789:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education5069:
5067:
4813:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education4784:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education4646:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education4392:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education4259:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education4201:
4199:
3891:The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Education3308:'s ground-breaking work in the ethics of care3069:and epistemological view are together called "2069:is a recent pioneer in contemplative methods.1930:Social reconstructionism and critical pedagogy1268:. Some theorists emphasize the cultivation of928:of education and factors threatening it, like12945:
10200:
8104:
7782:
6449:Educational philosophy for a post-secular age6361:
6359:
6218:
6034:
6032:
5900:
5898:
5525:Griffith, Mary (5 May 2010). "Introduction".5073:
5027:
5025:
4776:
4774:
4731:
4729:
4501:
4451:"Critical Thinking: A Streamlined Conception"4377:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4153:
3626:
3624:
1582:Various discussions also concern the role of1007:The philosophy of education is the branch of873:and the development of the abilities of good810:
537:
13187:
13141:
13127:
12868:South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands7364:New Perspectives on Philosophy and Education7298:, E.M. Standing, p. 174, Publ. Plume, 1998,7030:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (6682:
6653:
5945:
5619:
4896:
4674:A fallibilistic approach to education policy4550:
4548:
4546:
4053:The SAGE Handbook of Philosophy of Education3324:Educating for Intelligent Belief or Unbelief2071:The Center for Contemplative Mind in Society7796:
6873:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp.44–45.6787:
6785:
6783:
6781:
6779:
6777:
6775:
6773:
6771:
6331:
6086:
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5848:
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5454:
5452:
5119:Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care5064:
4780:
4196:
4089:
4087:
4085:
4083:
4081:
3341:Professional organizations and associations3085:, Jean Piaget is "the great pioneer of the2967:
2400:instead of individual tuition from private1598:Some researchers reject the possibility of12952:
12938:
10207:
10193:
8111:
8097:
7789:
7775:
7590:A Companion to the Philosophy of Education7078:. New York, NY: McGraw Hill. p.197.6763:A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context6761:King, Brett; Viney, Wayne; Woody, William.6356:
6335:Elementary Education: A Reference Handbook6151:"Notes on John Locke's Views on Education"6029:
5895:
5628:
5171:
5022:
4994:
4992:
4841:"Educating for a More Law-Abiding Society"4838:
4771:
4726:
4150:
3621:
2999:
2588:alone. Some scholars have argued that the2056:
1866:
817:
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544:
530:
7486:
6825:
6823:
6821:
6803:
6801:
6649:
6647:
6409:. New Delhi: APH Publishing. p.36.6246:
6236:
6166:
6155:Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences6056:
6004:
5859:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education5646:
5497:
5259:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education5148:
5130:
4972:
4803:
4636:
4603:
4554:
4543:
4497:
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4493:
4457:. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp.31–47.4416:
4414:
4388:
4255:
3267:the efforts of the schools, but actually2604:the Younger in 1671, had an influence on2140:Learn how and when to remove this message1563:, on the other hand, focus more on moral1457:
12570:
8014:Constructivism (philosophy of education)7267:
7239:
7211:
6895:. Eds. Ruth W. Grant and Nathan Tarcov.6836:, June 2012, Vol. 62 Issue 3, p. 343–70.6768:
6404:
6338:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pp.6081:
5954:
5843:
5785:
5557:
5524:
5501:John Holt: The Philosophy of Unschooling5449:
4510:. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp.1–25.4502:Davies, Martin; Barnett, Ronald (2015).4355:
4108:
4078:
4056:. SAGE Publications Ltd. pp.3–20.4049:
3630:
3215:
3111:
2945:
2889:
2838:
2829:
2759:
2755:
2286:
2161:
2073:founded a branch focusing on education,1555:and enabling children to become morally11945:
11173:
11162:
7756:Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Education7413:http://search.eb.com/eb/article-90598857386:
7366:. Pearson Education, Inc. p.346.7355:
6850:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p.44.6730:
6148:
5826:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy5677:
5413:The Philosophy of Mathematics Education5252:
4989:
4561:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy4205:
3753:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy3637:. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. p.2610:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding2439:school from the age of 6 and be taught2065:modified form) in secondary education.2041:responsibilities, work experience, and1967:
14305:
7703:The History of education and childhood7654:
7617:
7492:
7423:
6818:
6798:
6793:Montaigne's Uses of Classical Learning6644:
6506:
6372:. John Wiley & Sons. p.117.6365:
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5904:
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4897:Davis, Gordon; Neufeld, Blain (2007).4735:
4704:
4670:
4490:
4420:
4411:
4163:
4109:Noddings, Nel (2016). "Introduction".3887:
3840:
3546:Teachers College - Columbia University2620:
1895:
1854:Another disputed topic is the role of12959:
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11564:
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11161:
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8004:Cognitivism (philosophy of education)7999:Behaviorism (philosophy of education)7770:
7705:. Radboud University, Nijmegen, 20007361:
7144:
7100:"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy"7046:"Sophie: Woman's Education According"6868:
6845:
6471:
6446:
6429:
6366:Pugach, Marleen C. (6 January 2009).6332:Harmon, Deborah; Jones, Toni (2005).6200:from the original on 30 December 20216045:American Educational Research Journal5883:from the original on 12 November 20215822:"Equality of Educational Opportunity"5727:
5359:
5301:
4954:
4820:from the original on 27 December 20214809:
4791:from the original on 30 December 20214642:
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4399:from the original on 28 December 20214284:
4266:from the original on 27 December 20213283:TV game show. In his follow-up work,2960:The Montessori method arose from Dr.1449:, i.e to what extent students should16:Study of nature and aims of education7553:from the original on 27 October 20097073:
6944:"Philosophy of Education: Theorists"6755:
6306:
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5607:from the original on 2 November 20235545:from the original on 2 November 20235479:from the original on 2 November 20235458:
5224:"Modern Morality and Ancient Ethics"5052:from the original on 2 November 20234708:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy3844:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy3604:Harvard Graduate School of Education3092:Jean Piaget described himself as an2679:Essay concerning Human Understanding2092:
1839:sees the mind as a blank slate or a1400:Critical thinking and indoctrination1242:
12914:
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2692:Of the Conduct of the Understanding2675:Of the Conduct of the Understanding1717:critiques of the school systems in940:, which follows the example of the13:
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2835:Rudolf Steiner (Waldorf education)2817:
2686:Some Thoughts Concerning Education2671:Some Thoughts Concerning Education2608:'s formulation of tabula rasa in "2344:depends on the education of youth.2208:that which is subject and servant?1847:. This view contrasts with a more1728:capitalist relations of production14:
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7711:
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3467:
3423:US, Southern Illinois University3177:
3087:constructivist theory of knowing2805:
2097:
1982:
837:that investigates the nature of55:
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4238:from the original on 2023-11-034166:"The Epistemology of Education"4130:
4119:from the original on 2023-06-094102:
3851:from the original on 2021-01-163610:from the original on 2017-04-203552:from the original on 2017-05-173373:Philosophy of Education Society3292:
3211:
3067:theory of cognitive development2983:. He was a major figure in the2738:and other new disciplines with1910:
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12589:Federated States of Micronesia11884:British Indian Ocean Territory8118:
7747:"Philosophy of Education". In6149:Androne, Mihai (9 July 2014).5853:Cole, Mike (25 January 2019).5308:Journal of Aesthetic Education4955:Golby, Micheal (1 July 1997).4915:10.5840/soctheorpract2007331353592:
3563:
3534:
3192:Toward a Theory of Instruction3046:
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2006:
1519:, and social aspects, such as1343:as the goal of education. For1192:
893:to which the student belongs.1:
14039:Oration on the Dignity of Man10214:
9851:
7147:The Elementary School Teacher6685:The Age of Achievement: Vol 46656:The Age of Achievement: Vol 46474:Critical Studies in Education5648:10.1080/13613324.2015.11214745573:Economics of Education Review5360:Ogden, Robert Morris (1913).5172:Desjardins, Rosemary (1985).4839:Partington, Geoffrey (1990).4671:Petrik, Kathryn Rose (2016).4287:"Education and the Good Life"3527:
2885:
2664:
2537:
1948:, critical pedagogy draws on1494:
1002:
14109:The Society of the Spectacle12557:United States Virgin Islands10227:
9640:Ordinary language philosophy8131:
7737:Resources in other libraries7300:http://www.penguinputnam.com6595:" (3.9-13, 17-18) and "From6486:10.1080/17508487.2014.8586436433:Logic, the theory of inquiry6168:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.05.2555635:Race Ethnicity and Education3248:
2930:The Child and the Curriculum2857:Waldorf or Steiner education2631:On the Education of Children2282:
2244:compulsory military training2122:Knowledge's inclusion policy1902:Classical education movement1551:emphasize the importance of1362:
7:
12319:Education in North America9690:Contemporary utilitarianism9605:Internalism and externalism7661:. Oxford University Press.7578:, by Steven M. Cahn, 1997,6948:Turtola's CyberEnglish Blog5422:10.1007/978-3-319-40569-8_14736:Taylor, Rebecca M. (2016).4206:Schmitt, Frederick (2005).4164:Watson, Lani (March 2016).3512:Outline of educational aims3507:Learning theory (education)3460:
3300:' first sole-authored book3065:studies with children. His2781:Rousseau wrote in his book2353:
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1676:
1567:through the development of10:
14334:
12764:Education in South America10864:
8954:Svatantrika and Prasangika8593:
7943:Educational existentialism7699:The necessity of education7344:http://www.randomhouse.com7322:http://www.randomhouse.com6309:New Educational Philosophy6238:10.1007/s11092-020-09342-85255:"Aesthetics and Education"4903:Social Theory and Practice3542:"Philosophy and Education"3257:published his first book,3059:developmental psychologist2766:Maurice Quentin de La Tour2668:
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2542:In the 12th century, the2420:. Ibn Sina described the1989:Educational progressivism1830:
1785:epistemology of education1631:philosophy of mathematics1575:, is the extent to which833:is the branch of applied258:Middle Eastern philosophy14169:The Malaise of Modernity14119:The History of Sexuality13218:Catholic social teaching12735:Northern Mariana Islands12552:Turks and Caicos Islands11633:East Timor (Timor-Leste)11229:Central African Republic7978:Social reconstructionism7948:Educational perennialism7938:Educational essentialism7892:Student-centred learning7424:Munari, Alberto (1994).7074:Cahn, Steven M. (1997).6711:Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006),6521:10.1080/13617679902002026283:www.philosophybasics.com6058:10.3102/00028312198605116006:10.3102/0091732x209094005302:Smith, Ralph A. (1969).5132:10.4103/2249-4863.1415884845:The Australian Quarterly4224:10.3366/epi.2004.1.3.2233419:Center for Dewey Studies3188:The Process of Education3161:educational perennialism3010:educational essentialism2973:William Heard Kilpatrick2968:William Heard Kilpatrick2629:wrote about. His essays2598:Philosophus Autodidactus2157:
1917:Educational essentialism1887:Educational perennialism1636:
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12482:British Virgin Islands11996:Bosnia and Herzegovina9778:Social constructionism8790:Hellenistic philosophy8206:Theoretical philosophy8181:Philosophy of religion8171:Philosophy of language8019:Criticism of schooling7340:Discovery of the Child6901:Hackett Publishing Co.6736:G. A. Russell (1994),6097:Educational Researcher5222:Gordon, John-Stewart.3631:Noddings, Nel (1995).3446:The Spencer Foundation3223:
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3153:University of Chicago3145:San Mateo, California3117:Mortimer Jerome Adler3112:Mortimer Jerome Adler3083:Ernst von Glasersfeld2993:Progressive Education2985:progressive education2955:Samuel Sidney McClure2949:
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9770:
9765:
9760:
9755:
9750:
9745:
9740:
9735:
9730:
9728:Existentialism9725:
9723:Deconstruction9720:
9714:
9712:
9706:
9705:
9703:
9702:
9697:
9692:
9687:
9682:
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9667:
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9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9617:
9612:
9607:
9602:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9578:
9573:
9568:
9563:
9558:
9556:Applied ethics9552:
9550:
9541:
9535:
9534:
9531:
9530:
9528:
9527:
9522:
9520:Nietzscheanism9517:
9512:
9507:
9502:
9497:
9492:
9491:
9490:
9480:
9474:
9472:
9468:
9467:
9465:
9464:
9462:Utilitarianism9459:
9454:
9449:
9444:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9424:
9419:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9389:
9384:
9379:
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9364:
9363:
9362:
9360:Transcendental9357:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9337:
9327:
9326:
9325:
9315:
9310:
9305:
9300:
9298:Existentialism9295:
9290:
9285:
9280:
9275:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9254:
9248:
9242:
9241:
9238:
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9235:
9234:
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9226:
9220:
9219:
9217:
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9211:
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9189:
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9181:
9175:
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9166:
9165:
9164:
9159:
9154:
9149:
9144:
9139:
9134:
9123:
9121:
9117:
9116:
9114:
9113:
9108:
9103:
9098:
9093:
9088:
9086:Augustinianism9083:
9077:
9075:
9069:
9068:
9066:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9050:
9045:
9040:
9035:
9029:
9027:
9020:
9014:
9013:
9010:
9009:
9007:
9006:
9001:
8999:Zoroastrianism8996:
8991:
8985:
8983:
8977:
8976:
8974:
8973:
8972:
8971:
8966:
8961:
8956:
8951:
8946:
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8936:
8931:
8921:
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8897:
8892:
8887:
8882:
8877:
8872:
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8856:
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8847:
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8842:Church Fathers8839:
8834:
8829:
8824:
8819:
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8807:
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8797:
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8609:
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8412:
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8402:
8397:
8392:
8387:
8382:
8377:
8371:
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8360:
8359:
8357:Libertarianism8354:
8353:
8352:
8342:
8341:
8340:
8330:
8324:
8322:
8316:
8315:
8313:
8312:
8307:
8302:
8296:
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8288:
8287:
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8284:
8279:
8274:
8269:
8264:
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8226:
8220:
8218:
8212:
8211:
8209:
8208:
8203:
8198:
8193:
8188:
8183:
8178:
8173:
8168:
8163:
8161:Metaphilosophy8158:
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8147:
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8135:
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8124:
8123:
8116:
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7712:External links7710:
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7159:10.1086/4533487153:(7): 441–453.7137:
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6950:. 2011-03-28.6935:
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6231:(4): 461–479.6211:
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6051:(2): 612–652.6028:
5999:(1): vii–xvi.5976:
5944:
5923:10.2307/5893625917:(4): 563–578.5894:
5875:
5842:
5807:
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5740:(7): 755–772.5720:
5670:
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5430:
5402:
5372:(3): 179–193.5352:
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5184:(2): 261–281.5164:
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4967:(2): 125–138.4947:
4889:
4851:(4): 346–360.4831:
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4504:"Introduction"4489:
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3316:Women and Evil3306:Carol Gilligan3294:
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3176:
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3165:
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3110:
3094:epistemologist3061:known for his3048:
3045:
3037:
3034:
3017:
3014:
3001:
2998:
2989:Project Method2969:
2966:
2943:
2940:
2887:
2884:
2849:Rudolf Steiner2843:Rudolf Steiner2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2819:
2816:
2807:
2804:
2757:
2754:
2666:
2663:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2602:Edward Poco*cke2539:
2536:
2461:Islamic ethics2355:
2352:
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2347:
2284:
2281:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2147:
2105:
2103:
2096:
2090:
2087:
2058:
2055:
2011:Main article:2008:
2005:
1999:Progressivists1995:social animals1987:Main article:1984:
1981:
1972:Main article:1969:
1966:
1962:social justice1946:Marxist theory1934:Main article:1931:
1928:
1915:Main article:1912:
1909:
1900:Main article:1897:
1894:
1885:Main article:1882:
1879:
1873:
1872:Existentialist1870:
1868:
1865:
1832:
1829:
1780:
1777:
1765:private sphere1678:
1675:
1638:
1635:
1496:
1493:
1485:communitarians1459:
1456:
1427:indoctrination1401:
1398:
1364:
1361:
1270:liberal ideals1244:
1241:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1187:decolonization1113:existentialism1080:
1077:
1004:
1001:
973:postmodernists930:discrimination887:indoctrination825:
824:
822:
821:
814:
807:
799:
796:
795:
794:
793:
788:
783:
778:
773:
768:
763:
758:
756:Evidence-based753:
748:
743:
735:
734:
730:
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728:
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722:
717:
715:Social science712:
707:
702:
697:
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659:
658:
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611:
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581:
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568:
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563:
562:
552:
551:
549:
548:
541:
534:
526:
523:
522:
519:
518:
513:
508:
503:
501:Metaphysicians498:
493:
488:
483:
477:
471:
470:
469:
466:
465:
462:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
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429:Metaphilosophy426:
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393:
388:
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377:
371:
370:
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366:
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352:
347:
342:
337:
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327:
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314:
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307:
306:
305:
304:
303:
302:
297:
292:
287:
282:
277:
267:
266:
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255:
254:
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243:
242:
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236:
231:
226:
221:
216:
206:
205:
204:
199:
194:
181:
180:
174:
173:
172:
171:
170:
169:
164:
154:
149:
144:
139:
138:
137:
132:
119:
118:
110:
104:
103:
102:
99:
98:
96:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
50:
47:
46:
38:
37:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
14330:
14319:
14316:
14314:
14311:
14310:
14308:
14293:
14290:
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14286:
14280:
14277:
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14274:Social theory14272:
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14260:
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13709:
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13696:
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13689:20th and 21st13687:
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13508:
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13498:
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13481:18th and 19th13479:
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13258:
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13228:
13224:
13221:
13220:
13219:
13216:
13214:
13211:
13210:
13208:
13204:
13198:
13195:
13192:
13191:
13186:
13182:
13179:
13178:
13177:
13174:
13172:
13169:
13167:
13164:
13162:
13159:
13157:
13154:
13152:
13149:
13146:
13145:
13140:
13138:
13135:
13132:
13131:
13126:
13124:
13121:
13119:
13116:
13114:
13111:
13109:
13106:
13102:
13099:
13098:
13097:
13094:
13092:
13089:
13087:
13084:
13082:
13079:
13077:
13074:
13072:
13069:
13065:
13062:
13061:
13060:
13057:
13055:
13052:
13050:
13047:
13045:
13042:
13040:
13037:
13033:
13030:
13029:
13028:
13025:
13021:
13018:
13016:
13013:
13011:
13008:
13007:
13006:
13003:
13001:
12998:
12996:
12993:
12991:
12988:
12986:
12983:
12981:
12978:
12976:
12973:
12972:
12970:
12966:
12962:
12955:
12950:
12948:
12943:
12941:
12936:
12935:
12932:
12920:
12912:
12910:
12902:
12900:
12899:
12888:
12887:
12884:
12870:
12865:
12863:
12862:French Guiana12860:
12858:
12855:
12854:
12852:
12846:
12841:
12835:
12832:
12830:
12827:
12825:
12822:
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12810:
12807:
12805:
12802:
12800:
12797:
12795:
12792:
12790:
12787:
12785:
12782:
12780:
12777:
12776:
12774:
12772:
12768:
12761:
12751:
12748:
12746:
12743:
12741:
12738:
12736:
12733:
12731:
12728:
12726:
12725:New Caledonia12723:
12721:
12718:
12716:
12713:
12711:
12708:
12706:
12705:Easter Island12703:
12701:
12698:
12696:
12693:
12691:
12688:
12687:
12685:
12679:
12673:
12670:
12668:
12665:
12664:
12662:
12656:
12650:
12647:
12645:
12642:
12640:
12637:
12635:
12632:
12630:
12627:
12625:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12615:
12612:
12610:
12607:
12605:
12602:
12600:
12597:
12595:
12592:
12590:
12587:
12585:
12582:
12581:
12579:
12575:
12568:
12558:
12555:
12553:
12550:
12548:
12545:
12543:
12540:
12538:
12535:
12533:
12530:
12528:
12525:
12523:
12520:
12518:
12515:
12513:
12510:
12508:
12505:
12503:
12500:
12498:
12495:
12493:
12490:
12488:
12485:
12483:
12480:
12478:
12475:
12473:
12470:
12468:
12465:
12463:
12460:
12459:
12457:
12449:
12443:
12442:United States12440:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12420:
12418:
12415:
12413:
12410:
12408:
12405:
12403:
12400:
12398:
12395:
12393:
12390:
12388:
12385:
12383:
12380:
12378:
12375:
12373:
12370:
12368:
12365:
12363:
12360:
12358:
12355:
12353:
12350:
12348:
12345:
12343:
12340:
12338:
12335:
12333:
12330:
12329:
12327:
12323:
12316:
12306:
12303:
12302:
12300:
12296:
12290:
12287:
12285:
12282:
12280:
12277:
12275:
12272:
12270:
12267:
12265:
12264:Faroe Islands12262:
12260:
12257:
12256:
12254:
12248:
12242:
12239:
12237:
12236:South Ossetia12234:
12232:
12229:
12227:
12224:
12222:
12219:
12218:
12216:
12210:
12204:
12201:
12199:
12196:
12194:
12191:
12189:
12186:
12184:
12181:
12179:
12176:
12174:
12171:
12169:
12166:
12164:
12161:
12159:
12156:
12154:
12151:
12149:
12146:
12144:
12141:
12139:
12136:
12134:
12131:
12129:
12126:
12124:
12121:
12119:
12116:
12114:
12111:
12109:
12106:
12104:
12101:
12099:
12096:
12094:
12091:
12089:
12088:Liechtenstein12086:
12084:
12081:
12079:
12076:
12074:
12071:
12069:
12067:
12064:
12062:
12059:
12057:
12054:
12052:
12049:
12047:
12044:
12042:
12039:
12037:
12034:
12032:
12029:
12027:
12024:
12022:
12019:
12017:
12014:
12012:
12009:
12007:
12004:
12002:
11999:
11997:
11994:
11992:
11989:
11987:
11984:
11982:
11979:
11977:
11974:
11972:
11969:
11967:
11964:
11962:
11959:
11958:
11956:
11952:
11948:
11943:
11933:
11929:
11925:
11923:
11915:
11914:
11911:
11905:
11902:
11900:
11897:
11895:
11892:
11890:
11887:
11885:
11882:
11881:
11879:
11874:
11870:
11864:
11861:
11859:
11858:South Ossetia11856:
11854:
11851:
11849:
11846:
11844:
11841:
11840:
11838:
11836:
11830:
11824:
11821:
11819:
11816:
11814:
11811:
11809:
11806:
11804:
11801:
11799:
11796:
11794:
11791:
11789:
11786:
11784:
11781:
11779:
11776:
11774:
11771:
11769:
11766:
11764:
11761:
11759:
11756:
11754:
11751:
11749:
11746:
11744:
11741:
11739:
11736:
11734:
11731:
11729:
11726:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11716:
11714:
11711:
11709:
11706:
11704:
11701:
11699:
11696:
11694:
11691:
11689:
11686:
11684:
11681:
11679:
11676:
11674:
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11661:
11659:
11656:
11654:
11651:
11649:
11646:
11644:
11641:
11639:
11636:
11634:
11631:
11629:
11626:
11624:
11621:
11619:
11616:
11614:
11611:
11609:
11606:
11604:
11601:
11599:
11596:
11594:
11591:
11589:
11586:
11584:
11581:
11580:
11578:
11576:
11572:
11568:
11563:
11548:
11544:
11540:
11537:
11531:
11527:
11524:
11518:
11515:
11509:
11505:
11501:
11498:
11497:
11494:
11486:
11480:
11477:
11475:
11472:
11471:
11469:
11461:
11455:
11452:
11450:
11447:
11445:
11442:
11440:
11437:
11435:
11432:
11430:
11427:
11425:
11422:
11420:
11417:
11415:
11412:
11410:
11407:
11405:
11402:
11400:
11397:
11395:
11392:
11390:
11387:
11385:
11382:
11380:
11377:
11375:
11372:
11370:
11367:
11365:
11362:
11360:
11357:
11355:
11352:
11350:
11347:
11345:
11342:
11340:
11337:
11335:
11332:
11330:
11327:
11325:
11322:
11320:
11317:
11315:
11312:
11310:
11307:
11305:
11304:Guinea-Bissau11302:
11300:
11297:
11295:
11292:
11290:
11287:
11285:
11282:
11280:
11277:
11275:
11272:
11270:
11267:
11265:
11262:
11260:
11257:
11255:
11252:
11250:
11247:
11245:
11242:
11240:
11237:
11235:
11232:
11230:
11227:
11225:
11222:
11220:
11217:
11215:
11212:
11210:
11207:
11205:
11202:
11200:
11197:
11195:
11192:
11190:
11187:
11186:
11184:
11180:
11176:
11171:
11167:
11160:
11156:
11145:
11141:
11137:
11136:
11132:
11107:
11102:
11099:
11095:
11094:Undergraduate11092:
11091:
11086:
11083:
11082:
11078:
11073:
11070:
11068:
11065:
11061:
11058:
11057:
11052:
11049:
11030:
11024:
11020:
11019:Middle school11017:
11016:
11011:
11008:
11007:
11002:
10999:
10998:
10993:
10990:
10971:
10965:
10960:
10959:
10954:
10951:
10950:
10945:
10942:
10941:
10936:
10933:
10923:
10918:
10915:
10911:
10908:
10907:
10902:
10899:
10898:
10895:
10892:
10890:
10887:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10877:
10876:
10871:
10867:
10862:
10858:
10848:
10845:
10843:
10840:
10838:
10835:
10833:
10830:
10828:
10825:
10823:
10820:
10818:
10815:
10814:
10812:
10808:
10802:
10799:
10795:
10792:
10790:
10787:
10785:
10784:Project-based10782:
10780:
10779:Problem-based10777:
10775:
10772:
10770:
10767:
10765:
10762:
10760:
10757:
10755:
10752:
10750:
10747:
10745:
10742:
10740:
10739:Demonstration10737:
10735:
10734:Contemplative10732:
10730:
10727:
10725:
10722:
10721:
10720:
10717:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10695:
10692:
10688:
10685:
10683:
10680:
10678:
10675:
10674:
10673:
10670:
10668:
10665:
10663:
10660:
10658:
10655:
10653:
10650:
10648:
10645:
10644:
10642:
10638:
10632:
10629:
10627:
10624:
10622:
10621:Homeschooling10619:
10617:
10614:
10612:
10609:
10607:
10604:
10602:
10599:
10597:
10594:
10593:
10591:
10589:
10585:
10579:
10576:
10574:
10571:
10569:
10566:
10564:
10561:
10559:
10556:
10554:
10551:
10549:
10546:
10544:
10541:
10539:
10536:
10534:
10531:
10529:
10526:
10524:
10521:
10519:
10516:
10514:
10511:
10509:
10506:
10504:
10501:
10499:
10496:
10494:
10491:
10489:
10486:
10484:
10481:
10479:
10476:
10474:
10471:
10469:
10468:Environmental10466:
10464:
10461:
10459:
10456:
10454:
10451:
10449:
10446:
10444:
10441:
10439:
10436:
10434:
10431:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10419:
10416:
10415:
10413:
10411:
10407:
10399:
10396:
10395:
10394:
10393:Instructional10391:
10389:
10386:
10384:
10381:
10379:
10376:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10364:
10361:
10359:
10356:
10354:
10351:
10349:
10346:
10344:
10341:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10321:
10319:
10316:
10312:
10309:
10307:
10304:
10302:
10299:
10297:
10296:Psychometrics10294:
10290:
10287:
10286:
10285:
10282:
10281:
10280:
10277:
10275:
10272:
10270:
10267:
10266:
10264:
10260:
10254:
10251:
10249:
10246:
10244:
10241:
10240:
10238:
10236:
10232:
10225:
10221:
10217:
10210:
10205:
10203:
10198:
10196:
10191:
10190:
10187:
10175:
10174:
10165:
10163:
10162:
10151:
10150:
10147:
10129:
10126:
10124:
10121:
10119:
10116:
10114:
10111:
10109:
10106:
10105:
10103:
10101:Miscellaneous10099:
10093:
10090:
10088:
10085:
10083:
10080:
10078:
10075:
10073:
10070:
10068:
10065:
10063:
10060:
10058:
10055:
10053:
10050:
10048:
10045:
10043:
10040:
10038:
10035:
10033:
10030:
10026:
10023:
10022:
10021:
10018:
10016:
10013:
10011:
10008:
10007:
10005:
10003:
9999:
9993:
9990:
9988:
9985:
9983:
9980:
9978:
9975:
9973:
9970:
9969:
9967:
9965:
9961:
9955:
9952:
9950:
9947:
9945:
9942:
9940:
9937:
9935:
9932:
9930:
9927:
9925:
9922:
9920:
9917:
9916:
9914:
9912:
9908:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9884:
9883:
9881:
9879:
9875:
9872:
9870:
9866:
9862:
9854:
9853:
9849:
9845:
9827:
9826:
9822:
9820:
9817:
9815:
9812:
9810:
9807:
9805:
9802:
9801:
9799:
9797:Miscellaneous9795:
9789:
9786:
9784:
9783:Structuralism9781:
9779:
9776:
9774:
9771:
9769:
9768:Postmodernism9766:
9764:
9761:
9759:
9758:Phenomenology9756:
9754:
9751:
9749:
9746:
9744:
9741:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9726:
9724:
9721:
9719:
9716:
9715:
9713:
9711:
9707:
9701:
9698:
9696:
9695:Vienna Circle9693:
9691:
9688:
9686:
9683:
9681:
9678:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9666:
9663:
9661:
9658:
9656:
9653:
9651:
9648:
9646:
9643:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9625:Moral realism9623:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9613:
9611:
9608:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9597:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9574:
9572:
9569:
9567:
9564:
9562:
9559:
9557:
9554:
9553:
9551:
9549:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9536:
9526:
9523:
9521:
9518:
9516:
9513:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9489:
9486:
9485:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9475:
9473:
9469:
9463:
9460:
9458:
9455:
9453:
9450:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9427:Phenomenology9425:
9423:
9420:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9393:
9390:
9388:
9385:
9383:
9380:
9378:
9375:
9373:
9370:
9368:
9367:Individualism9365:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9338:
9336:
9333:
9332:
9331:
9328:
9324:
9321:
9320:
9319:
9316:
9314:
9311:
9309:
9306:
9304:
9301:
9299:
9296:
9294:
9291:
9289:
9286:
9284:
9281:
9279:
9276:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9255:
9252:
9249:
9247:
9243:
9233:
9232:Judeo-Islamic9230:
9229:
9227:
9225:
9221:
9215:
9212:
9210:
9209:
9208:ʿIlm al-Kalām9205:
9203:
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9184:
9182:
9180:
9176:
9170:
9167:
9163:
9160:
9158:
9157:Shuddhadvaita9155:
9153:
9150:
9148:
9145:
9143:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9133:
9130:
9129:
9128:
9125:
9124:
9122:
9118:
9112:
9109:
9107:
9104:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9092:
9091:Scholasticism9089:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9078:
9076:
9074:
9070:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9046:
9044:
9041:
9039:
9036:
9034:
9031:
9030:
9028:
9024:
9021:
9019:
9015:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8986:
8984:
8982:
8978:
8970:
8967:
8965:
8962:
8960:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8950:
8947:
8945:
8942:
8940:
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8926:
8925:
8922:
8918:
8915:
8913:
8910:
8909:
8908:
8905:
8901:
8898:
8896:
8893:
8891:
8888:
8886:
8883:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8873:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8862:
8861:
8858:
8857:
8855:
8853:
8849:
8843:
8840:
8838:
8835:
8833:
8830:
8828:
8825:
8823:
8820:
8818:
8815:
8811:
8808:
8806:
8803:
8801:
8798:
8796:
8793:
8792:
8791:
8788:
8786:
8783:
8781:
8778:
8776:
8773:
8771:
8768:
8766:
8763:
8761:
8758:
8754:
8751:
8749:
8746:
8744:
8741:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8731:
8730:
8729:
8726:
8725:
8723:
8721:
8718:
8714:
8708:
8705:
8703:
8700:
8698:
8695:
8693:
8690:
8688:
8685:
8683:
8680:
8678:
8675:
8673:
8670:
8669:
8667:
8665:
8661:
8658:
8656:
8652:
8644:
8641:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8624:
8621:
8620:
8619:
8616:
8614:
8611:
8610:
8608:
8606:
8602:
8598:
8591:
8587:
8573:
8570:
8568:
8565:
8563:
8560:
8558:
8555:
8553:
8550:
8548:
8545:
8543:
8542:Conceptualism8540:
8538:
8535:
8534:
8532:
8530:
8526:
8520:
8517:
8515:
8512:
8510:
8507:
8506:
8504:
8502:
8498:
8492:
8489:
8487:
8484:
8482:
8479:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8471:Particularism8469:
8467:
8464:
8463:
8461:
8459:
8455:
8449:
8446:
8444:
8441:
8439:
8438:Functionalism8436:
8434:
8431:
8429:
8426:
8424:
8423:Eliminativism8421:
8419:
8416:
8415:
8413:
8411:
8407:
8401:
8398:
8396:
8393:
8391:
8388:
8386:
8383:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8372:
8370:
8368:
8364:
8358:
8355:
8351:
8348:
8347:
8346:
8343:
8339:
8336:
8335:
8334:
8331:
8329:
8328:Compatibilism8326:
8325:
8323:
8321:
8317:
8311:
8308:
8306:
8303:
8301:
8298:
8297:
8295:
8293:
8289:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8267:Particularism8265:
8263:
8260:
8258:
8255:
8253:
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7398:0-7425-0887-07394:
7390:
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6918:Some Thoughts6913:
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6891:Locke, John.6888:
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6460:
6454:
6451:. Routledge.6450:
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6416:97881313039176412:
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5465:. Routledge.5464:
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5038:. Routledge.5037:
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